Slovak Republic
Political, economic and social impacts on environmental protection at the spring of 1994
Political changes
The environmental lobby had more political influence in the first few months following the "velvet revolution" than it has now. Between December 1989 and June 1990, the Minister of the Environment was the Vice-Prime Minister. The Green Party had six deputies in the Slovak Parliament during its first session (July 1990 - June 1992). After the elections in June of 1992, the Green Party was no longer represented in parliament. There are generally less people in parliament and government now with experience in environmental protection issues. The diminishing priority status of environmental issues is also due to the more pressing political issues now before parliament. Ongoing conflicts over a variety of contentious issues further complicate the political process.
The split of the Federation in January 1993 had effects in some particular areas of environmental protection. Experts mentioned that environmental concerns moved down the priority list to a greater degree in Slovakia than in the Czech Republic because of political and economic reasons. Also, resources for some projects which were previously sponsored from the former Federal budget are not available anymore. On the other hand, government representatives considered as very positive the fact that international cooperation, which was mainly directed by the Federal Committee of Environment, can now be undertaken by the MoE. Problems related to sometimes unclearly defined authority between the Slovak Commission for the Environment and the Federal Committee of the Environment have thus disappeared.
A very important political event regarding the environment was the creation of an independent environmental administration in 1990. As a central body, the Slovak Commission for the Environment was established as an over-sectoral body, above the status of a Ministry. In 1992 it was renamed the Ministry of Environment and was set on the same level as other Ministries. Unlike the Czech Republic, Slovakia established independent regional environmental offices. There are plans to integrate them as a part of the general regional offices of state administration. The general regional offices are responsible for several areas such as education, social affairs etc., but not for financial issues or the collection of taxes (for this a separate office is responsible). From the state side this reorganization of environmental administration at the local level is called "horizontal integration of the administration," following the prefecture structure of France. The heads of the regional offices would be the representatives of the state government. Some environmental advocates criticize this reorganization as a tendency towards centralization and a reduction of the power and independence of the local authorities.
Between 1990 and 1992 almost the whole system of environmental law was renewed. After the split, Slovakia adopted all the new environmental acts from the Federation. However, as environmental advocates mentioned, since the elections in 1992, no environmental acts have been adopted by the Slovak Parliament to complete the environmental legislation.
Economic changes
The whole concept for restructuring the economy into a free market system was elaborated in the former Federation. The Slovak Republic, after requiring independence did not change this concept much and in essence this policy is continued. In practice, however, there are some differences, mainly in the process of privatization which has been at a virtual standstill for months. Some experts mentioned that generally the role of the state in economic development is greater in the Slovak Republic than in the Czech Republic.
The restructuring of the economy has resulted in a reduction of the volume of industrial production to about 50-60% of the 1989 level. Most branches of industry are affected, except for instance, metallurgy and other secondary production industries. Energy production did not decrease. Most of the companies are in debt, with an exception being the energy producing companies. Partially because of the decline of industrial production, in some fields the emission of pollutants has diminished too. For instance, national SO2 emissions decreased about 40% between 1989 and 1992. Few major polluting sources have been partly or totally closed. Social concerns and industrial lobbies are largely responsible for such steps not being taken as they are very concerned about the unemployment rate, which has reached 12 - 14%.
Restructuring agriculture means that 80% of the land will be (re)privatized, and will result in a change in the structure and practices of agricultural production. Experience so far has shown that the new owners are concerned with short-term profits, regardless of environmental concerns. For example, they cut the trees (even in the National Parks and in the Nature Protected Areas) for export to the West. They also drain wetlands and exploit land for grazing. However, in cases where smaller agricultural enterprises are transferred to private ownership they often do not use as much pesticides and fertilizers as before (mostly because of the high cost of these chemicals), resulting in a positive impact on the environment.
The primary mechanism for restructuring the economy is privatization. It is requiring drastic changes in ways of thinking, not only regarding economic development, but also in relation to environmental concerns. In terms of the environment the core problem of privatization is to solve the question of past pollution - ecological liability. Privatization has not yet had a strong impact on the environment in Slovakia. Its progress has been quite slow thus far. The first wave of privatization, so called "small" privatization, has generally resulted in more positive than negative impacts on the environment. The sense of personal responsibility that comes with the new private ownership is resulting in a change in business practices and efficiency improvements that in some cases indirectly benefit the environment. The slow pace of privatization has also had its effects and environmental consequences. For example, it has happened that once it is known that a factory is going to be privatized, the current owner (the state) is no longer concerned with its environmental status, resulting in the neglect of its environmental responsibilities. (Which reflects the importance of the liability issue.)
During the first wave of privatization, there were no legal requirements to address environmental issues. In the second wave large companies which include the biggest point sources of industrial pollution will be privatized. In the 1992 law regarding the second wave of privatization there is an order requiring environmental audits to be done for each privatization unit. But the information required by the audit has disputable and relative value. The audit is primarily of use to the prospective buyer and helps to regulate the price. The range for bargaining on the price is so broad that it may result in as much responsibility being held by the state as by the new owner, which means that it is more or less a question of agreement between the two parties. At present the MoE is working out more precise conditions to ease the process of negotiations about how the responsibility for environmental liability can be shared between the two parties. These documents do not address the questions of time allowed and how the clean-up has to be done. They serve mainly to make the privatization process quicker. The proposed approach is that the state will be responsible for all environmental liability outside the area a company is owning, whereas past pollution located on the premises is the responsibility of the new owner. In some cases this approach is not possible because of too large economic problems (e.g. the aluminium factory in Ziar nad Hronom) or with companies where the ecological liabilities are higher than the value of the enterprise to be privatized. In these cases, possibilities for negotiations shall be provided as follows: first, the price of the enterprise can be reduced because of ecological debts, and; second, the National Property Fund can donate funding to solve the issue. Third, companies can create an own fund to address the issue, in which parts of the taxes to be paid to the state and also a part of the environmental fines and fees, the company may eventually have to pay, can be deposited. This approach is well supported by private companies.
Social changes
With the opening of the "iron curtain" the society was opened, too. Information about the state of the environment has been prepared and published, and environmental experts and organizations were allowed to influence the decision making process. In addition, international organizations offered assistance and have been welcomed. However, environmental advocates stressed that at present the amount and access to information remains insufficient and public participation is limited. It was noted that the situation was better before the elections in 1992.
The transition period has resulted in serious social problems such as unemployment and economic threats to parts of society. Because of this, and also because of public attention moving towards new interests and concerns, awareness and interest regarding environmental problems has decreased. Just after the revolution environmental concerns were a high priority of the public. This was the case in part because before the revolution voicing concern about environmental problems was one of the few possibilities to criticize the rulers of the former system.
Assessment of environmental assets and damages
Natural capital
Slovakia is rich in natural treasures. National Parks and Protected Nature Areas are being adversely impacted by intensive tourism, damaging forestry practices and local industries. Citizens and local authorities living in the adjacent areas aren't generally concerned with these problems. The government is currently considering the Tatra National Park as a potential site for a future winter Olympics. This could have serious environmental consequences for the area. Environmental advocates contend that promoting ecotourism in these areas is a better alternative. One significant example of squandering natural capital is in the Danube Basin where intensive cutting of natural forests is taking place. In this case, the economic value of the cut timber is of more interest to the loggers than the value of the standing forest ecosystem. In Central and Eastern Slovakia, there are also instances where forests are cut for use as fuel. Other examples of natural capital are Slovakia's wetland areas. Accordingly, there are ongoing activities to protect the biodiversity of Eastern Slovakian wetlands and Southwestern Slovakian fresh-water resources.
Environmental damages
The government's general policy for building a "strong" Slovakia includes a high level of energy use. Two new power plants are under construction (nuclear - Mochovce, hydro- Zilina on the river Vah). Both power plants will raise serious environmental issues, e.g., the disruption to the river and its adjacent lands and the disposal of nuclear waste. The former Soviet Union accepted all of the high level waste before 1990, but now none of the successor states accepts it. The nuclear power plants (Jaslovske Bohunice, and Mochovce) have "temporary" dumps on-site, but their capacity is limited. The low level waste and intermediate level waste are reprocessed. This situation is an obvious environmental threat with serious potential consequences. Environmental advocates agree that implementing efficient energy-saving technologies would be a better solution to the energy problem, however, this alternative would depend on western financial and technical assistance. However, the nuclear issues are not so much in public discussion. The well publicized issue of Gabcikovo - Nagyvaros (damming the Danube for energy production) is still the subject of controversial and emotional discussion. Experts also mentioned pollution from (heavy) industries as prominent sources for environmental damages, such as chemical, petrochemical, metallurgical, steel mill, cement, paper and cellulose, and aluminium industries.
Priority environmental problems
Air pollution
Air pollution is considered to be one of the most pressing environmental issues. The major types of air pollution are: SO2 emitted by industrial facilities burning low quality, high-sulphur coal (e.g. the power plant in the Homa Nitra region, the steel mill in Kosice, and the petrochemical factory in Bratislava); toxic substances and heavy metals (e.g. coming from fertilizer and pesticide manufacturers, arsenic and fluorine from the aluminium plant in Ziar nad Hronom, chemical industries in Eastern Slovakia, mercury, copper and others coming from color metallurgy in the Spis region); dust created by the cement and magnesit industries; NOx from automobile exhaust, and; CO2 from power plants, industrial facilities and automobiles.
Water pollution
The biggest sources of water pollution are urban conglomerations and industry. In general, industrial plants don't treat effluent prior to discharging into rivers. In addition, few sewage treatment plants exist and municipal wastewater is often discharged to rivers with little or no treatment.
Waste management
Most of Slovakia's solid waste is burned in incinerators with insufficient abatement technologies. The country's waste problem is exacerbated due to the secret importation of waste from western nations.
Agricultural pollution
Use of pesticides and artificial fertilisers with nitrates, are the principal causes of pollution from agriculture, which appears mainly as water pollution.
Critical steps to start or continue environmental improvements
Management and administration
The structure of the environmental administration has been reorganized several times since 1990. Furthermore, there is a high turnover of staff, also in high positions. The same goes for other administrative bodies which cooperate with the environmental administration. For instance, the directing staff of the Ministry of Privatization has been changed recently and now discussions about environmental concerns in privatization have to be started anew. Another issue is that 25 - 30% of the staff of the environmental administration left because of the lack of money. The future effect of this turnover remains to be seen. In terms of cooperation between the MoE and other Ministries and organizations, the general lack of understanding of the interdependence of environmental concerns with other issues is affecting effectiveness and efficiency. The MoE is a young institution and in some cases its representatives have yet to find their new roles and positions in the transformation process.
Enforceable environmental policy and law
A new official environmental policy was adopted in November 1993, and is in accordance with the Environmental Action Program for Central and Eastern Europe, endorsed at the Lucerne Ministerial Conference. The new policy addresses issues more concretely and is considered an important step towards solving environmental problems. The subjects included in the policy are: 1) air pollution and global environmental security; 2) drinking water supply and limitation of water pollution; 3) soil protection and food quality; 4) waste management and treatment; 5) biodiversity protection, optimal use of natural resources, and landscape optimization. However, as an expert mentioned, no money has been allocated for the practical implementation of the policy in the state budget for 1994.
The main principle of the former environmental policy, which was elaborated by the Slovak Commission for the Environment, is the "ecologization" of human awareness, of legal and economic instruments, of the organization of territory and of production technology. Under this term, a cross-sectoral approach and an infiltration of environmental concerns and principles into other areas was understood. The implementation turned out to be difficult however.
Between 1990 and 1992, Slovakia enacted new environmental legislation, including the General Environmental Protection Act, Waste Act, and Clean Air Act. Several acts are still under preparation (e.g. in the area of water pollution and nature protection, the old and outdated laws from 1973 and 1955, respectively, are in force). Additionally, an act about risk assessment for existing companies is being prepared by the MoE. A new Environmental Impact Assessment Law has been drafted and the environmental administration and environmental advocates are optimistic about its effect.
As a result of the quick development of the new environmental law system and also because of constant and rapid changes in the structure of the economy, it was and still is necessary to make amendments to the existing new acts in order to ensure the ability of the economy to meet the requirements of the regulations. It was mentioned that harmonization with laws of other areas, for instance economic, is insufficient. Economic tools should be considered which benefit the environment, for example incentives and subsidies for pollution control activities and technologies.
Enforcement of environmental laws is a serious problem. Environmental inspectorates have been established, but in some cases it is unclear as to who actually holds the enforcement power. Also a lack of options for enforcement has been mentioned. Many companies cannot pay the environmental fees and fines and most of the heavy industries are still state owned. Usually no alternative measures are provided if a company cannot pay the fines. In addition, as in other CEE countries, the efficiency of enforcement in Slovakia is weakened because of obstacles like insufficient technical support, management problems, low public respect for the rule of the law, etc.
Expertise and public support
The experts stressed that improving environmental education at all levels should be high priority. There is a lack of environmental professionals. Management and organizational skills should especially be improved, and here the exchange of experience with western countries would be helpful. A broad dissemination of knowledge concerning modern ideas and methods in the field of environmental protection is lacking. An increase in public awareness and public participation regarding environmental issues is also greatly needed to create pressure on decision-makers and to promote an atmosphere where solutions to problems can be elaborated. Access to environmental information must be improved, and information about the actions of decision-makers and businesses should be public and broadly disseminated.
Technology and services
Environmentally sound investments and improvements in all areas of business and society are greatly needed as well as the broad adoption of environmentally friendly technologies and products. The main problems, however, are the lack of investment opportunities and finding money for investments. There are some private companies which offer environmentally friendly technology, but this sector is still underdeveloped. There are few working incentives which support such activities.
Driving forces for environmental improvement and degradation
Foreign trade and investment
Foreign trade and investment has both positive and negative impacts on the environment. Modern technologies available through international trade can benefit the environment as may foreign investors producing export goods according to EC standards. However, some foreign firms are promoting environmentally harmful technologies and dirty industries in Slovakia. For example, it was reported that an Austrian lobby is pressuring Slovakia to accept its hazardous waste in return for financing a waste incinerator in Bratislava.
Economic restructuring
In the near-term, the economic sector will be the driving force in regard to the environment. Restructuring of the economic system, privatization and change of ownership, western investment and the adoption of western technologies will directly affect the environment in both positive and negative ways. In general, economic reforms provide benefits to the environment, but the growing emphasis on quick profits and short-term thinking tends to negatively impact the environment.
International pressure
International pressure connected to environmental issues is coming from Austria because of the existing and planned nuclear power plants in Jaslovske Bohunice and Mochovce, and from Hungary concerning the hydropower plant Gabcikovo-Nagymaros.
Environmental activists and scientists
Positive driving forces towards environmental preservation and improvement in Slovakia include the activities of environmental movements and volunteers, the work of environmental experts, scientific research, and positive pressure through diplomatic channels.
Integration of environmental protection and economic development
Obstacles to integration
With the exception of some very rare cases, economic and environmental policy are not integrated at all. The experts mentioned several major obstacles impeding the integration of these two vital sectors. On all levels, there is a serious lack of broad dissemination of information and awareness of modern ideas and approaches to harmonize economic development with environmental protection. The ideas that "environmental protection is an obstacle to economic growth" and that "environmental problems can be solved when the economy is well" persist. Economic planning focuses on short term goals, while the environment requires long term thinking. Cooperation and communication between these two sectors (as well as among others) is only just beginning and economic interests still receive official priority over environmental interests.
Existing and proposed measures for improving integration
At present, there is no official approach or concept provided to harmonize environmental concerns with economic goals. However, development concepts for different branches of the economy (energy, mining, metallurgy) are currently being elaborated. The MoE is being consulted with during the drafting of the plans. According to one expert these plans will include a greater stress on tackling environmental problems. It remains to be seen whether this cooperation will result in better integration in practice.
The effectiveness of economic instruments for environmental protection is low in Slovakia. Charge and fine rates are too low to provide real incentives to change polluting behavior. An obstacle for enforcement is that most of the heavily polluting large industrial facilities are still state owned. Many companies are not able to pay, and the amount of fines and charges officially imposed is much (ca. 30 times) higher than the amount actually collected. The government does not currently seem to be very engaged in adopting new market incentives that would benefit the environment.
Financing environmental improvements
Sources of funds for environmental protection include: a part of the state budget; the State Environmental Fund, and foreign assistance. Revenues generated by the environmental fines and charges are deposited in the State Environmental Fund. The money is then redistributed through a grants program. The government is now discussing the establishment of a "revolving fund" which would give soft loans for environmental improvements. This program will probably be open to companies as well as municipalities.
Slovakia is faced with economic hardship and cannot afford needed investments in new technologies (e.g., pollution control, abatement and energy efficient technologies) nor the reconstruction of old facilities. While funding is generally insufficient in Slovakia, there are areas where small investments would yield significant results (e.g. environmental education, especially for long term benefits or pilot projects in the areas of energy, tourism, recycling, water management, etc., to demonstrate the advantages of a sustainable economy.
The fact that there are no tax breaks or subsidies to encourage businesses to invest in environmentally sound practices is a definite problem. For example, there were some initiatives to separate plastics from the municipal waste in Bratislava, but the lack of incentives for recycling the plastics defeated the effort. In the tax system, which consists of eight special taxes, an ecological tax is provided. But it is not in force yet and in fact nobody knows just what the ecological tax should look like.
International cooperation
CEE-regional cooperation
The experts listed the following issues in which CEE cooperation is important and required (or already developing): transboundary air pollution (a regional and global issue); transboundary water pollution (e.g. Danube issues); the import and export of waste; energy production and distribution; issues related to pollution from transportation; harmonization of environmental policies; the establishment of common National Parks (e.g. Beskides on the border Slovakia and Poland and Danube-Ipel/Ipoly on the border of Slovakia and Hungary); the protection of forests (also connected with air pollution); environmental education, and; cooperation between NGOs.
Western assistance
Many, and mostly positive experiences with international assistance have occurred. Many important projects have been successfully completed, especially in the areas of environmental assessment and strategy development (often in industrial hot spot areas). However, the experts stressed the need for assistance to continue the implementation of the recommendations, (investment loans are required), as this is the major problem for implementation and gaining real results from such studies.
The experts cited some examples of negative experiences with western assistance. Environmental advocates criticized EBRD for investing in the aluminium plant in Ziar nad Hronom, a serious pollution source and major energy consumer. Some of the criticizms are related to points that the selling price of aluminium is below production costs on the world market, Slovakia does not have sources of raw material for aluminium production and does not have abundant sources of cheap and clean energy.
Apart from the many positive examples, experience thus far has shown that Western technical assistance is not always working in the most efficient and long-lasting way. A bigger number of local experts should directly participate in the projects. Projects could be more closely adapted to the local conditions and local people should profit more from western experience, management and problem solving techniques. Also, projects should be transparent. Often feedback and discussion of the results is too cursory and coming too late. Some experts had the opinion that international assistance should be focused more on smaller enterprises and NGOs. Additional foreign environmental assistance would be especially helpful in increasing the effectiveness and efficiency of environmental management in the state administration and NGOs, to incorporate environmental principles into the economic strategies, especially into the energy policy (efficient use of energy and energy saving program, alternative sources of energy), to address air pollution caused by automobiles, and to propagate a sustainable way of life.
Interest groups in environmental protection
National and local governments
Environmental decision-making is mainly directed at the national level by the MoE and the state government generally. At the local level, environmental authorities sometimes have great influence on environmental decision-making (depending on individual personalities).
Media
The media can potentially play a big role in Slovakia, unfortunately however, they aren't concerned to a large extent with environmental awareness and education.
NGOs and academia
NGOs and academia play roles in environmental protection, but they do not have much power and influence. The public is less inclined to accept the NGOs opinions than they were four or five years ago. Academia as a whole has lost influence, mainly because of a lack of financial support. The potential impact of NGOs is also diminished by the lack of funding. The amount of official support from the state budget for NGOs decreased about 10 times since 1991 and only a very few NGOs are now being supported.
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