Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia Macedonia
Political, economic and social impacts on environmental protection at the spring of 1994
Political changes
The process of democratization has generally had positive effects on environmental protection in the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia. (A few experts mentioned, though, that it has also had some adverse effects, as chaos and anarchy have appeared to some extent in the absence of the previous political system.) One expert noted that environmentalism as a movement really only began in the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia with the political reforms. The new freedom of democracy has allowed the public to speak out about problems such as environmental deterioration, and now citizens and environmental NGOs publicize the issues and react strongly to the different problems. In the words of one expert, "democratization has allowed greater 'glasnost' in environmental issues." Access to environmental information has also improved which helps the pro-environment efforts of NGOs and journalists. The political changes have allowed greater contacts and cooperation with western experts and organizations as well. Environmental interests are now promoted by various individuals and groups in decision-making at both the government administration and parliament levels. Some elected officials have even embraced environmental issues in their platforms. (A few experts noted, however, that the pro-environment positions announced by politicians are often merely hollow attempts to win electoral support.) Environmental activists from the Skopje NGO "Survival" formed the political party "the Greens of Macedonia," however, support for them was not great and they eventually joined another party.
Despite the benefits resulting from democratization, most of the experts agreed that the negative impacts of other political changes, namely the political conflicts with Greece and the fallout from the war in Yugoslavia, have had much stronger, and negative, influences on environmental protection in the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia. Certain environmental problems in the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, such as the improvement and protection of Lake Dojran and the Vardar River, simply cannot be solved, and continue to worsen, without close cooperation with Greece. The economic crisis resulting from the trade embargoes with Greece and Yugoslavia dominates public and political concern and environmental issues are considered a low priority. This has contributed to a lack of progress being made in enacting and formulating greatly needed new environmental legislation and policies. Progress in the areas of law and policy has also been hindered by the lack of a separate Ministry for Environment.
Economic changes
Economic changes occurring in the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia in recent years have had major impact on the environment, almost entirely for the worse. Nearly all of the interviewed experts explained that benefits expected to be gained from free market reforms have been overwhelmed by hardships resulting from political tensions with Greece and the war in Yugoslavia. Due to economic embargoes, markets have been lost in both of these countries, which represent two of the country's four neighbors. Moreover, pollution abatement equipment, critically needed by many factories, cannot be imported from these countries. A third neighbor, Albania, has severe economic problems of its own, leaving Bulgaria as the only bordering country with which to have normal trade relations.
The sharp economic decline experienced in the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia and the currently very weak economy have increased stress on the environment as short-term economic priorities now dominate decision-making in all sectors. Industry claims that it barely has enough money to pay salaries and that investments in environmental protection are simply not possible. The government says that it is doing all it can but that it too is severely hampered by the lack of financial resources. Members of the general public are experiencing increasing threats to their economic welfare and thus the environment is seen as a luxury item. In such circumstances environmental protection is considered a very low priority.
Social changes
The social changes of the recent years have occurred largely as a result of the above-mentioned political and economic changes, and are having wide-ranging effects on the environment. Political changes resulted in new social freedom, with which many more people became involved in environmental protection activities. Previously, public opinion was controlled and there was no public participation in governmental decision-making. Now citizens and citizen groups are willing and able to take part in government decision-making. The number and activity of NGOs has expanded rapidly, from 13 in 1991 to about 60 now. In 1990 the Macedonian Ecological Movement (DEM) was formed as a national umbrella organization consisting of independent environmental groups and professional associations. DEM has since become a member of the international environmental organizations "Friends of the Earth" and "Greenway." Three members of DEM serve as advisors to the Parliamentary Committee on Environmental Protection. Some industrial and governmental officials have recently become concerned about their reputations on environmental issues largely as a result of NGO efforts to raise public concern about the environment.
Nearly all of the experts explained, however, that the social changes resulting from the worsening economic conditions have had destructive effects on environmental protection. Because of the dire financial situation of many people, much of the public is more concerned about job security and economic welfare than environmental issues. Most people are concerned about the immediate issues of daily life, not the long-term health of the environment. As an example in support of this, one expert cited the increased exploitation of forest areas through the illegal harvest of trees and poaching of wild game. Government efforts in addressing the problems were reported as inadequate and a few experts stated that some government and parliament officials were just not interested in environmental problems at all.
Assessment of environmental assets and damages
Natural capital
Despite of the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia's small size the country has important and valuable natural assets. The major lakes of Ohrid, Prespa and Dojran were mentioned by nearly all of the experts as extremely valuable and in great need of special care. These lakes are home to many endemic species and offer excellent opportunities for scientific research. Their great beauty provides the basis for a bustling tourism business. The value of Lake Ohrid has received special recognition, with the lake being listed by UNESCO as a site of World Heritage. The former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia also has national parks (Pelister, Mavrovo and Galicica) which include many plant and animal species unique to Europe.
Environmental damages
Economic development in the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia is threatened by a variety of environmental damages. Perhaps chief among them is water pollution, which was mentioned by nearly all of the experts. Water pollution from industrial and domestic sources causes more damage than can be calculated according to one expert. Plants, fish, terrestrial animals, humans, all suffer from it. Each year large-scale fish-kills occur, and often water supplies are unusable for livestock due to industrial pollution. Some of the rivers are considered to be dead. The situation is exacerbated by already low and decreasing groundwater reserves. Water pollution negatively effects the state of the major lakes as well, which in turn has a detrimental effect on tourism. Other threats to economic development in the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia include deforestation due to drought, fire and illegal cutting, and soil contamination from poor management of industrial and agricultural waste.
Human health in the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia is also threatened by several other environmental factors. Air pollution from industry, home furnaces, and automobiles was mentioned as a considerable health threat. Emissions of SO2 from coal burning power plants and heavy metals from metalworking facilities were cited as having especially dangerous impacts on human health. Automobile exhaust was also mentioned as a serious and growing problem, particularly in the city of Skopje. One expert explained how air conditions in Skopje become worse in the winter due to temperature inversions, (Skopje lies in a valley), and that recent studies showed that car emissions were responsible for 60% of the pollutants present in such periods. The city of Titov Veles was also mentioned as a hot spot because of the large metal smelting facility located on its upwind edge.
Priority environmental problems
Water resources
Water problems were most often mentioned by the experts as priority issues. Surface waters are contaminated by domestic, agricultural and especially industrial pollution. Groundwater supplies are low and dropping due to the drought of recent years. The former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia's major lakes - Ohrid, Prespa, and Dojran - all suffer from inadequate wastewater treatment facilities (partial systems have been constructed, but were not finished because of insufficient funds), and Dojran's status is further threatened as its level continues to drop due to water diversions in Greece. The former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia's major rivers, especially the Vardar but also the Bregalnica, are highly polluted by numerous sources and are considered dead in many places.
Air quality
Air quality in many areas of the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia is also a serious issue and was the next most often mentioned problem by the experts. Emissions of SO2 from power plants (in Bitola and Oslomej) and homes burning low quality coal, and heavy metal emissions from metalworking facilities were cited as major concerns. The city of Titov Veles was described as being a hot spot for air problems due to the emissions from the large smelting facility located there, and the capital city of Skopje is increasingly effected by automobile exhaust.
Deforestation
Deforestation resulting from illegal cutting, the drought of recent years, and fires encouraged by these droughts, was another issue cited by many of the experts.
Waste management and soil contamination
Problems related to waste, both communal and industrial, were also mentioned as being priorities. One expert noted that soil contamination resulting from improperly managed waste is especially troublesome because, unlike the dynamic media of water and air, soil does not have much capacity to clean itself. Soil contamination also threatens food production and eliminates some areas from agricultural use.
Critical steps to start or continue environmental improvements
Management and administration
Improvements in the field of management and administration are strongly needed. There is no separate Ministry of Environment, and according to some of the experts, even within the currently responsible Ministry for Urbanism, Civil Engineering, Transport and Ecology the environment is a low priority. There are also no specialized research institutions for environmental protection. Cooperation with the other Ministries could and should be more substantial as well. There is no effective monitoring and inspection system for all environmental media. The duties and obligations of the local governments in environmental protection are undefined which adds to management problems.
Enforceable environmental policy and law
Improvements in environmental policy are greatly needed in the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia. At the present time there is no official environmental policy. An unofficial environmental strategy was prepared in 1991, and is used by the Ministry of Urbanism, Civil Engineering, Traffic and Ecology to some extent, however the document was never officially adopted. Currently there is no separate office or department for environmental policy. (Indeed, there is no separate Ministry of Environment).
Improvements in environmental law are also a high priority as the country is currently without environmental legislation suitable for the contemporary circumstances. The need for new environmental law is urgent as this should guide the development of new policies, standards and management methods. A new Environmental Law, based largely on the 1991 strategy mentioned above, has been drafted and is presently awaiting debate in parliament. The draft law was formulated in consultation with many different groups, including scientists, businesses and NGOs, and has been accepted by the government administration. The draft law attempts to harmonize environmental standards with European norms. Law enforcement is also very weak and in need of considerable improvement. One expert noted that the illegal activities of industry are almost entirely tolerated.
Expertise and public support
Improvements in environmental education and expertise were not often mentioned as high priority needs, however a few experts did state that ecological consciousness is inadequate in all sectors of society - government, business and general public. One expert discussed how there are currently many environmental education programs, and some well trained experts, but that the government is lacking sufficient expertise in the area of environmental protection. It was also mentioned that professional training of various types was needed for decision-makers and business managers.
Technological resources
Modern technologies are greatly needed in many areas according to most of the experts. The needs include air pollution abatement equipment for industrial facilities, the transition from coal to a natural gas heating system, wastewater treatment technologies, modern environmental monitoring devices, and hazardous and communal waste treatment systems.
Driving forces for environmental improvement and degradation
National government and parliament
The former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia's national government, (along with industry), was most often mentioned by the experts as a driving force on the state of the environment. Most of the experts were highly critical of the national government claiming that the failure of it and of the parliament to formulate and adopt urgently needed new laws, policies, management tools and methodologies has had a strongly negative impact on the environment.
Industry
Industry was mentioned equally with the national government as being a driving force on the state of the environment. Industry has a very short-term emphasis on immediate profits and the responsible Ministry simply does not force them to comply with environmental laws and regulations according to most of the experts. Industry does not place a priority on environmental protection and usually claims that it has no money to improve the situation.
NGOs and the media
NGOs with environmental experts and the media were the next most often cited forces effecting the state of the environment, in this case for the better. NGOs have raised public awareness of environmental issues and pressured the government to establish the needed laws and policies. At the same time, a large number of journalists are interested in environmental issues and have been very helpful in publicizing them.
Economic crisis and the general public
The economic crisis, worsened by the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia's political conflicts with Greece and the effects of the Yugoslav war, was also cited by a few of the experts as having strong harmful impacts on the environment. According to the experts, the general public, in part because of this economic crisis, is another negative driving force on the state of the environment. Concern for environmental protection is generally very low and abuse of nature is common. One expert stated that citizens do not even care about hygiene around their homes let alone hygiene of the environment.
Integration of environmental protection and economic development
Obstacles to integration
A variety of obstacles exist in the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia to integrating environmental concerns into economic development. Most often mentioned by the experts was the absence, or inadequacy of, environmental policy and law to mandate and guide such integration. The next most cited obstacle was the lack of financial resources to implement environmental protection considerations in economic development. Several of the experts also explained that other priorities, particularly economic and political issues, were dominating decision-making processes. Politicians were described as being pre-occupied with international issues and re-election campaigns. The poor performance and capacity of the government was also cited as a major obstacle, as was the lack of a separate Ministry of Environment. Government (and industry) officials are sometimes unable to understand how economic development and environmental protection can be integrated. There is a lack of expertise in formulating the necessary policies and mechanisms. In some cases, government decision-makers are not concerned about environmental issues. The generally low level of environmental awareness and concern in all segments of society is another obstacle.
Existing and proposed measures for improving integration
Unfortunately, the experts were not aware of existing measures for improving the integration of environmental concerns into economic development and they could not list any examples of sustainable development or the polluter pays principle. The new draft environmental protection law was, however, cited several times as a proposal to make advances in these areas. The concepts of both sustainable development and the polluter pays principle are included in the draft law, which has been approved by the government and is now awaiting debate in the Parliament. The draft law also gives attention to pollution prevention as a priority and includes requirements for environmental impact assessments for certain types of projects.
Financing environmental improvements
According to the experts the only financial mechanism for environmental protection in the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia is the general state budget, and this source is too small. One expert noted, however, that the polluting enterprises themselves make some investments in environmental protection and that the government tries to monitor and record these investments. Some new mechanisms are proposed in the draft law, such as pollution fines and an environmental tax on automobiles.
A few of the experts had the opinion that the country's financial resources were so limited that virtually none of the environmental problems could be solved using only them. However, most agreed that considerable progress could be made on several issues. Most of the experts believed that environmental legislation and policy could be improved with existing resources, and that law enforcement could be carried out much more effectively. Several experts stated that small local problems could be successfully addressed, and communal waste management was cited as one such example. Improvements in environmental education and awareness raising were mentioned by a few experts, as was the reduction of air pollution from automobiles. Other issues noted were the establishment of a National Environmental Fund, energy efficiency and completion of the conversion to natural gas, and the establishment of a separate MoE.
Problems mentioned as being solvable only with foreign financial assistance included hazardous waste management and the protection and restoration of the major water bodies - Lakes Ohrid, Prespa, and Dojran, and the Vardar River. These will require extensive water treatment facilities which the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia simply cannot afford at this time.
International cooperation
CEE-regional cooperation
Examples of successful cooperation with other CEE countries were extremely limited. Some cases of cooperation with neighboring countries were cited at the NGO level, but no such experiences were cited at the government level. Most of the experts agreed that CEE cooperation would be very helpful in many areas, and is absolutely essential on some. Effective protection of Lake Ohrid requires close cooperation with Albania, with whom the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia shares the lake. Lake Prespa is shared with both Albania and Greece, and likewise, its protection requires cooperation between the three countries. Lake Dojran is in a critical state due to water diversions in Greece, and in this situation cooperation is essential. The Vardar River is also shared with Greece and requires significant improvements.
Western assistance
The large majority of experts stated that there had not yet been any foreign assistance for environmental protection in the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, thus they could not cite any positive or negative experiences. Cooperation with foreign NGOs has been better than anticipated, one expert reported, with REC, Friends of the Earth International and Greenway all providing important assistance. One expert noted that a few years ago the Government of Yugoslavia received 23 million USD for environmental purposes, part of which was to come to the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, but that none of the money actually arrived due to the political break-up and war. Another expert mentioned that some western firms had tried to bring polluting technologies into the country, while other firms had attempted to dump their hazardous waste in the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia.
Several types of foreign assistance would be especially helpful in the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia according to the experts. Most often mentioned was technological assistance. Modern pollution abatement equipment is needed for water and air protection, and monitoring systems are required. The next most often cited form of help was western expertise and experience. This help would be very useful in developing new laws, policy, methodologies, and improved management capacity. Direct financial assistance was also indicated by many of the experts as being a very helpful form of aid. Other types of assistance which were mentioned include support for NGOs, nature protection and environmental assessments.
Interest groups in environmental protection
NGOs and the media
NGOs and the media were mentioned most often, by a wide margin (and usually together) as having the greatest impact on environmental decision-making. Both are very active in publicizing environmental issues and promoting environmental education. NGOs have been especially engaged in pressuring the government to take action for protecting the environment and have also conducted their own direct actions. The former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia's national environmental umbrella group, DEM, uses an innovative technique in awarding annual "Green Apples" to individuals and organizations making significant contributions to environmental protection, while assigning "Rotten Apples" to those having particularly negative environmental impacts.
National government
The national government received the next most mention as the dominant influence on environmental decision-making. Unfortunately, this influence was generally regarded as negative by most of the experts. (A few experts noted that the national government should have the most influence, but does not.)
Scientific experts
Scientific experts were also cited as having significant impact on environmental decision-making. One expert noted that NGOs with scientific experts have been especially effective. Like some comments about the national government, a few of the experts explained that scientists should have the primary influence but do not.
REC * PUBLICATIONS * STRATEGIC ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES 2 * former Yugoslav Republic of MACEDONIA
