| This Synthesis Report presents a summary of the findings of the Sofia Initiative on Local Air Quality (SILAQ) Working Group on the reduction of SO21 and particulate air pollution. Its primary purpose is to provide an up-to-date overview of the progress achieved in the reduction of SO2 and particulate emissions in the SILAQ countries: namely, Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Slovakia and Slovenia, and to facilitate an exchange of experiences and lessons learned. The SILAQ Initiative focused on two specific areas: (1) the promotion of unleaded gasoline throughout the Central and East European (CEE) region, and (2) the significant reduction of sulfur and particulate emissions. The latter aspect concentrated on local air pollution rather than on transboundary air pollution. While SO2, NOx and particulate matter pollution is usually discussed jointly, this Report addresses only SO2 and particulate matter. This Report has been prepared by the Regional Environmental Center for Central and Eastern Europe, in cooperation with the Bulgarian Ministry of Environment and Waters, based on a significant amount of data collected by the SILAQ countries and a number of assessments, studies and reports concerning existing policies and approaches to the reduction of sulphur oxides and particulate matter pollution. The chair of the SILAQ Initiative is the Bulgarian Ministry of Environment and Waters.
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Health Impacts |
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| Health effects from exposure to air pollution include: irritation and annoyance, loss of organ functions (e.g. reduced lung capacity), morbidity and mortality. Some effects can be acute and reversible, while others develop gradually into irreversible chronic conditions. The respiratory system and the eyes are the main organs affected by air pollution. There is conclusive evidence, based on epidemiological research studies and analysis of medical insurance records in countries with heavily polluted areas, of a link between different acute and chronic health effects and the incidence of significant particulate matter and SO2 pollution. In polluted areas the prevalence of persistent coughing and respiratory tract infections is 2-3 times higher than in areas where pollution is less extensive. A similar relationship is also shown for areas where mortality results from lung cancer. In Hungary, for instance, acute respiratory diseases are known to be the cause of between 23 and 25 percent of all sick-leave cases. Among the acute respiratory diseases, catarrh in the lower respiratory tract (e.g. bronchitis, pneumonia) warrants particular attention. SO2, primarily resulting from the combustion of sulfur-containing fuels as well as from production processes in the chemical industry, is the precursor of sulfate particulates which can irritate eyes and the respiratory tract, reduce lung function, aggravate emphysema, asthma, and chronic bronchitis and may result in mortality. Particulates originate from a variety of mobile and stationary sources, and vary in terms of physical composition, chemical content, and size. Particulate matter can lead to pulmonary irritation and respiratory diseases. The effects of particulate matter vary considerably depending on its composition, and can be potentially carcinogenic and mutagenic. The most harmful elements to human health tend to be small particulates, owing to their ability to reach the lower regions of the respiratory tract, which can contribute to negative effects on the respiratory system, aggravation of existing respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, anomalies in the body's defense systems to foreign substances, damage to lung tissue, carcinogenesis and premature death. It should be noted that SO2 and particulates have a compounded negative effect on health, as particulates carry SO2 to the lower part of the respiratory system which would not otherwise be reached. High levels of SO2 and particulates can increase the occurrence of asthma, in particular among children. A similar tendency is observed with regard to lung cancer. As a result, there has been a tendency in recent years to focus regulatory measures on controlling small particles, with a diameter of less than 10 micrometers. Finally, it should be mentioned that significant negative economic consequences arise from SO2 and particulate pollution, including deforestation, acidification of water bodies and soils, and deterioration of concrete structures and historic sites.
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Air Pollution Levels |
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| Economic recession in the SILAQ countries has brought about a downward trend in the levels of emissions, for both particulate matter and SO2. This trend appears to be continuing to decline despite economic recovery, due to the restructuring and modernization of production systems and the impact of new environmental legislation and regulations. SO2 emissions have clearly declined, with a strong downward trend identified in the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Slovenia and Romania. Levels of compliance were found to be satisfactory, with the exception of Bulgaria and some regions in Poland, where standards were consistently exceeded. The comparison of data on SO2 and particulate concentrations shows that non-compliance with particulate matter limits is a more serious problem in the SILAQ countries. Concentrations of particulate matter tend to exceed standards often by several times, particularly in Bulgaria, Romania and Slovakia. Concentrations above the upper threshold value are registered mainly in residential areas where the impact of industry is combined with that of fuel combustion from households. However, a rise in industrial activity and total energy consumption in the SILAQ countries, consistent with economic recovery, is expected to lead to a rise in SO2 and particulate emissions, particularly in those countries where preventive measures have yet to be taken.
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Sources of Pollution |
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| In terms of total SO2 emissions per country, Bulgaria emerges as the greatest producer of SO2 pollution, closely followed by Poland and the Czech Republic. The same three countries also had the highest levels of particulate emissions. The high levels of emissions in comparison with developed industrialized countries is a result of the SILAQ countries' dependency on fossil fuels, particularly the low heat, and high sulfur and ash-laden local lignites. In addition, the economies are characterized by low levels of energy efficiency due in many cases to the use of obsolete technologies. Finally, because of the financial constraints, emission control devices available on the market have yet to be widely implemented. The main sources of SO2 pollution have been identified as power generation and district heating plants. The share of power, cogeneration and district heating sources has actually increased as a percentage of the total SO2 emission levels. The share of commercial, institutional and residential combustion sources tends to remain relatively constant, with residential combustion the most serious small-scale source responsible for urban pollution. Non-combustion and other SO2 sources have a negligible share in the total level of emissions. Particulate emissions have decreased in each country during the surveyed period. Transport emissions have been found to have increased in all the SILAQ countries due to the change in transportation patterns and the shift towards increased road use. In contrast to SO2 emissions, in analyzing the sources of particulate matter emissions, large power plants cannot be considered the main sources, due to the installation of high efficiency electrostatic filters. In terms of particulate emissions, residential heating and industrial combustion are the most significant sources. Mobile sources are an important source of particulate matter pollution, especially the use of diesel engines. Overall, power plants, co-generation and district heating facilities remain among the main contributors to poor air quality. In reviewing power plants, the medium and large-scale plants using solid fuels tend to dominate the energy supply market. However, in some countries discharges from residential and commercial combustion processes tend to be the major contributors of particulates.
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Legislative and Regulatory Framework |
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| Over the last three years, the SILAQ countries have harmonized most of their principal domestic legal acts with those of the European Union (EU). New air pollutant limits introduced across the region are very close or even identical to their EU counterparts, while in other countries new regulations are now under development or consideration. The two key issues related to the legislative and regulatory framework are the necessary improvements required in the institutional framework and the actual adoption of new environmental legislation and standards. Most of the SILAQ countries have traditionally well-established institutional frameworks for environmental protection and particularly air pollution control. The respective ministries of environment formulate, coordinate and implement environmental protection activities at the state level. They also control the activities of the regional bodies and coordinate research and development in the field of environmental protection. Regional bodies are responsible for guiding and enforcing environmental control at the local level, and for monitoring the quality of air, water and soil, while the responsibility and decisions for actions at the local level lie with different local authorities. The need to strengthen the institutional framework is recognized in all of the SILAQ countries. At the national level, the most often reported problems are the lack of personnel and funds available to ministries. At the regional level, in addition to these problems, there is a lack of administrative capacity and experience to deal with environmental issues. In most cases, a comprehensive environmental framework law has been established that introduces the "polluter pays" principle, specifies the administrative framework and the responsibilities of authorities at a national and regional level, and arranges financial mechanisms to support environmental projects. Framework laws are usually supplemented by sets of other laws and subordinate regulations, including laws on air quality, and protection that introduces air quality standards. The air pollutants regulated in most of the SILAQ countries include: sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), ozone (O3), carbon monoxide (CO), particulate matter and lead (Pb in aerosols). The successful enforcement of these regulations requires the well-designed and efficient functioning of the institutional framework and monitoring systems. All SILAQ countries have established air monitoring networks but most require investments for the construction of new stations and for the purchase and installation of modern equipment. The relevant standards establish requirements for ambient air quality, emission levels from specific sources, and the quality of fuels used. The health-related ambient air quality standards are specified for key pollutants for short, medium and long-term. Air quality standards adopted in the SILAQ countries are among the most stringent in the world, and this should be kept in mind when discussing compliance with local standards in the SILAQ countries. Poland has the most stringent ambient air quality standard for SO2 (0.032 mg/Nm3). Bulgaria and Slovenia operate standards of 0.05 mg/Nm3, while the remaining SILAQ countries introduced standards of 0.06 mg/Nm3. In terms of particulate matter, the standards range from 0.05 mg/Nm3 in Poland to 0.15 mg/Nm3 in Bulgaria. In general, the adopted EU standard values are less strict than those of the SILAQ countries, although they account for the combined effect of SO2 and particulates. A separate set of requirements concerning SO2 and particulates relates to the emission standards applied for different sources. The primary target of these standards are the power and heat generation plants, and a generally flexible approach has been adopted towards existing power plants. Compliance with the standards established for new units are to be adhered to by existing plants on an individual basis after feasibility and environmental impact studies. In the intermediate period (usually until the end of 1998) existing plants will have to install emission control devices and switch to alternative fuel mixes. The deadlines for meeting the final standards are within the first decade of the next century. Comparison of the standards shows that the values adopted in the SILAQ countries are comparable with EU standards. Other source-specific emission standards apply to metal smelters, steel works, refineries and cement plants. Fuel quality standards regulate the sulfur content of fuels. With regard to fuel standards, the EU Directive 93/12/EEC of March 23, 1993 for the Sulfur Content of Certain Liquid Fuels should be taken as a reference point for comparison. Interestingly, whereas air quality standards exist with relatively uniform values in the SILAQ countries, large deviations exist for fuel quality standards. For example, Slovenia has adopted strict and comparatively stringent values for liquid fuels, while Slovakia has applied relatively stringent standards for all liquid fuels since the beginning of 1998. At the same time, Romania and Bulgaria have set different standard values for light, medium and heavy fuel oil. New legislation, however, may fail to meet its objectives unless a broad mix of policy instruments are implemented alongside, including so-called economic instruments, regulations and guidelines.
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Implementation of Air Pollution Control Strategies |
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| Most of the SILAQ countries' main efforts in reducing SO2 and particulate emissions have been concentrated in the following directions:
Successful measures used to reduce local air pollution in urban areas have included the regulation of fuel for domestic heating (e.g. low sulfur content in oil and coal), introduction of natural gas instead of coal and oil, development of district heating, and in some cases, restriction of the use of cars in city centers. Fly ash and dust removal installations in industrial sources and large boilers have resulted in major improvements, while cost-effective energy conservation measures and the substitution of fossil fuels with renewable energy sources have considerable potential for the larger reduction of emissions. Technologies that ensure the removal of air pollutants are generally expected to grow in importance. The technology most commonly used to remove SO2 is known as flue gas desulfurization (FGD). The most commonly used dust-cleaning systems are "dry types" - electrostatic precipitators and bag filters. These have most commonly been used in the metallurgical and energy sectors in recent years. The "wet-absorption type" systems are most commonly found in the chemical industries. Within the SILAQ countries, different cleaning systems are operated or are in the process of being implemented. Wet working lime-limestone systems tend to be more commonplace, however dry cleaning systems tend to offer a number of clear advantages that indicate interest in these systems will grow in the near future. Besides "end-of-pipe" technologies, other methods to reduce the air pollution from combustion processes include: changing the fuel mix, including the use of additives; increasing the conversion efficiency; introducing low emission combustion or conversion processes; and fuel cleaning. In terms of actual emission controls, Hungary, the Czech Republic, Poland, Slovenia and Slovakia have already introduced a number of cleaning systems, with the main installations at industrial plants in Slovenia completed, and those in the Czech Republic, Hungary and Slovakia due for completion in 1998. Installations in Poland will be completed next year. Bulgaria and Romania are still at an earlier stage of implementation. However, progress in implementing technical measures to deal with particulate and SO2 emissions has been slow and the potential to reduce emission levels by other means such as changing the fuel mix, reducing energy consumption and the installation of different pollution control devices are areas that should still be explored. Furthermore, "end-of-pipe" measures are no substitute for the preventive approach which perhaps has to be the more serious long-term policy measure. A clear shift from technical-based measures towards government and policy-related options is being noted in the SILAQ countries, as the benefits other measures like the decommissioning of old, coal-fired power plants, converting to natural gas, the use of renewable energies and the implementation of new state-of-the-art technologies, can have on air quality improvement are realized.
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Use of Economic Instruments |
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| Economic instruments are playing an increasingly important role in environmental policy in the SILAQ countries. A variety of economic instruments have been in use in the region for several years with a mixture of new instruments being introduced more recently and older instruments being revised. These instruments include: pollution charges and taxes (for air, water, waste), non-compliance charges ("environmental fines"), product charges (e.g. on gasoline), deposit refund systems, import tariffs (e.g. for old cars), and tax differentiation or exemption (e.g. lower taxes for unleaded gasoline/petrol and tax relief for environmental equipment or investments). Some countries are now considering the introduction of tradable pollution permits. Environmental charges for the use or pollution of air, water and waste, together with pollution fines and fuel taxes are common revenue raising tools for national and regional environmental funds in all the SILAQ countries except Romania (which has yet to establish its own fund). Levels of emission charges are typically low, but are now being revised in the process of approximation with the EU. Environmental fines for non-compliance with emission standards are used in most of the countries. In the Czech Republic, Poland and Slovakia, they are used in addition to emission charges. In Bulgaria, Hungary and Romania, environmental fines are charged only for non-compliance with emission standards. The environmental charges and fines adopted in Poland are among the highest in the world. Economic instruments complement command and control mechanisms and allow for environmental problems to be addressed more quickly, more effectively and in a more cost-efficient manner. If the rates of economic instruments are set high enough, both a reduction in the level of pollution and the prevention of the over-exploitation of natural resources can be achieved. However, until market mechanisms are fully effective, these regulations will remain the most important and best options to properly address environmental issues and in particular air pollution in the short run.
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International Commitments |
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| Much of the desired progress will be achieved by the CEE countries as a result of the meeting of obligations stipulated in various international conventions, and due to the harmonization of domestic regulations with those of the European Union. All existing environmental policy and legislation in the SILAQ countries is now being revised and refined according to the goals of the EU's Fifth Environmental Action Program Towards Sustainable Development. Also of importance are those international environmental laws and conventions which have been signed over the course of the last ten years, including the Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution and its associated Sulphur Protocol, the Vienna Convention for the Protection of Stratospheric Ozone and associated Montreal Protocol, and the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change. As a result of the drastic decreases in industrial output during the transition process and new national environmental legislation and regulations, all the SILAQ countries are likely to meet their commitments to international conventions and laws. As regards compliance with EU requirements, various forms of technical and financial assistance is being made available to the accession countries by the European Commission.
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Other Considerations for the Implementation Process |
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| The transition process has accorded responsibility to a number of new environmental stakeholder groups besides the state. Economic reform and the approximation of EU legislation has delegated greater power to local authorities by broadening their rights and responsibilities both for pollution control and in promoting investments and measures for pollution abatement. Private companies are also now expected to mobilize financing for investment in environmentally friendly technologies and production, in order to remain competitive on the international market. Meanwhile, the government's role is now to set realistic environmental targets and regulations, to allow time for complianc,; enforce regulations and to balance external incentives (such as prices and taxes). The removal of subsidies and respective increases in energy prices to realistic market levels creates incentives to promote energy efficiency and to decrease the energy intensity of the national economy and industrial production. There is also a general tendency toward the decline of heavy industry and increased light industry and service-sector activities in the SILAQ countries. Nevertheless, there are still many other barriers to overcome on the path to reform, and further improvements will have to be made in terms of the environment and air quality.
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Progress in Implementation |
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| A number of investment projects have been implemented since 1995 related to dust cleaning and desulfurization systems in the metallurgical and energy sectors. These projects have often been implemented with external technical or financial support. To date, dust precipitation systems have been implemented or are in the process of being implemented in the metallurgical plants of Bulgaria, while in Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia and Romania, dust cleaning systems have been introduced predominantly in the energy sector. Flue gas desulfurization has been introduced in Slovenia, Poland, the Czech Republic, and Hungary, and these experiences could be used for projects in Bulgaria, Romania and other countries. A number of further projects are likely in the coming years.
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Recommendations |
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| Based on experience in the implementation of the various programs for the reduction of air pollution, the following measures could be undertaken in order to facilitate further progress in the SILAQ countries:
Such programs and measures can only take place with the specific financial support of donors and expert assistance from different countries and institutions. The Regional Environmental Center could play a coordinating role in such a multinational program.
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Follow-up |
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| One of the main objectives of the SILAQ Initiative has been to identify valuable information on local air pollution control strategies and their implementation, and to facilitate the exchange of this information. The parties involved gained from one anothers' experiences and expect to benefit from this knowledge in improving local air quality. It can also be said that the policy measures and experiences of Western partners has had a catalytic effect on the SILAQ countries. It is clear that the use of incentive-based policies can lead to improved community health. In summarizing, the actions thus far taken, such as the approximation of legislation, the projects implemented, and the workshops and regular meetings, seem to indicate a good basis for future activities. In CEE, significant progress has already been made in reducing pollutant emissions. International cooperative projects, such as the work of the SILAQ group, could facilitate further progress in the coming years. The country studies and data presented above provide a significant resource for future knowledge transfer, not only among the countries of Central and Eastern Europe but conceivably also for the Newly Independent States.
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