5. Emission Reduction Measures (continued)

5.3. Policy Measures

  Among the driving forces behind reducing SO2 and particulate emissions in the SILAQ countries are the UN Conventions related to air pollution. Learning from Western experiences, most of the countries' main efforts have been concentrated in the following directions:

  • Development and introduction of new legislation, harmonized with the standards of the European Union;
  • Development of national action plans and strategies;
  • Improvements in monitoring and control systems;
  • Introduction of new economic instruments;
  • Implementation of new cleaning systems and new combustion technologies.

EU Harmonization Over the last three years, the SILAQ countries have harmonized almost all their principle domestic legal acts with those of the EU. New air pollutant limits introduced across the region are very close or even identical to their EU counterparts, while in other countries, new regulations are now being drafted.
Country Targets As part of the transition process, most SILAQ countries tend to include their emission reduction targets within the wider context of national policies, including national programs, regulations and economic instruments. The examples given in Boxes 8-11 help to illustrate the actions currently taking place.

BOX 8: National Environmental Policy in Bulgaria

Most regulations implementing the Clean Ambient Air Quality Act (adopted in 1996) are currently being drafted and are closely linked to SO2 and dust reduction. They provide a regulatory basis for reduction targets and among those already passed include:
  • Regulation on upper admissible concentration levels for harmful substances in the ambient air of human settlements;
  • Regulation on admissible levels (concentrations in waste gases) for harmful substances emitted to ambient air by stationary sources;
  • Methodology for calculating the height of discharging facilities, the dispersion, and the expected concentrations of polluting substances in the lowest layer;
  • Bulgarian State Standards (BSS) for standardized methods of automated monitoring of emissions of dust, SO2, CO, NOx, O3 and CnHm;
  • Regulation on threshold concentrations of harmful substances in ambient air for SO2, NOx, CO, O3;
  • Regulation on issuing permits for operation of sites and facilities.

The preparation of all regulations is in accordance with corresponding EU Directives and is performed with the support and assistance of the EU.

BOX 9: National Environmental Policy in Poland

In 1991, the Polish Parliament approved the National Environmental Policy. Among its medium-term objectives (to 2000) related to SO2 and particulate matter are the limitation of SO2 emissions to 2.9 million tons; limiting emissions of particulates by 50 percent compared to 1990 levels; and increasing the mean efficiency of dust removal to 96 percent. Within the long-term objectives (to 2010), stated measures include the total elimination of individual coal-fired burners in urban agglomerations and spa areas; the introduction of catalytic converters to all cars manufactured and in use; reduction in emissions of SO2 and other gases to levels agreed at international fora. The medium-term objectives for SO2 was achieved by 1992. In 1995, an Executive Program to the National Environmental Policy for 1994-2000 was discussed.

In 1996, parliament approved the Assumptions Underlying Poland's Energy Policy to the Year 2010 which takes consideration of the environmental issues.

Pursuant to parliament's decisions several ministers agreed upon the need to draw up a National Program for Reducing Emissions of SO2 by the Year 2010. This should help Poland meet its commitments arising under the Second Sulfur Protocol. One element of this is the Program for the Reduction of Emissions of SO2 in the Power Supply Industry, approved in 1996. This anticipates the reduction of SO2 emissions from the sector to 700,000 tons by 2010.

  Slovenia, for example, has set itself ambitious SO2 reduction targets and its program incorporates a list of actions to be undertaken by different stakeholders at different levels while at the same time employing a variety of different instruments.

BOX 10: Air Pollution Abatement in Slovenia

Based on the Slovenian Law on Environmental Protection (Official Gazette 32/93), and the program for the preparation of by-laws, a number of acts were adopted in the area of air protection. Some acts were adopted as Decisions of the government and some were termed Decrees of the Ministry of the Environment. Amongst the most important are the Decisions in the area of liquid fuels adopted at the beginning of 1995 that prescribe standards, and determine the upper levels for sulfur in gasoline and in heavier oils.

Power plants are the biggest source of air pollution in Slovenia. In 1993, they contributed some 81 percent or 139,435t to the total SO2 emissions in Slovenia. Despite the substantial investments needed, the upgrading of power plants has been successfully achieved to a level in which it is possible to reach the emission levels set by the law. Significant results have been achieved also in terms of the reduction of emissions from industrial sources through the closure of polluting industries and the introduction of new technologies.

An important part of the overall framework are local measures. Local authorities have undertaken various actions both in the regulatory area (Decisions, Measures), and in the area of improved gas supply to households and heating networks of cities. Thus Maribor (the second largest Slovenian city), succeeded in reducing SO2 emissions by half during the period 1990-1993 due to more active and strict regulation and gasification and heating network.

Also of considerable importance are the inspections and institutional efforts undertaken in reorganizing air protection responsibilities among local public services (Official Gazette 32/93). On a national level, a short-term action program to reduce air pollution and switch to cleaner fuel has been organized by the Ministry of Environment and Physical Planning and has been running since 1992. The Ecological Development Fund, meanwhile, in cooperation with the World Bank, provides loans to consumers encouraging their switch to environmentally friendly fuels.

BOX 11: Strategies and Policies in Air Protection in the Slovak Republic

The protection and regulation of the environment is managed by the ministry of environment and is implemented through its three inspectorates and through the offices of the environment (technically under the ministry of interior). The ministry of economy is responsible for energy issues. The energy sector has been partly privatized.

The National Environmental Action Program (NEAP) was adopted under Government Resolution No. 350 on May 14, 1996, and was first among the CEE countries. A document presenting the "Strategies, Principles and Priorities of the Governmental Environmental Policy" (NEP) was adopted by the parliament on November 18, 1993. Air quality protection is among the priorities established under the NEP combined with a list of short, medium and long-term objectives and overall priorities and principles.

The measures and objectives coincide partly with the goals of the Act of the Ministry of Environment 208/1996 on Emission Reduction Programs and obliges individual sources of air pollution to initiate their own reduction programs and to pass disclose details of these to the responsible local authority that supervises and regularly evaluates it.

Among the legal framework, the following acts and regulations apply:

Legislative Framework

  • Law 309/1991 on air protection
  • Law 134/1992 on state management of air pollution
  • Law 311/1992 on penalties for air pollution
  • Act of the Ministry of Environment No. 111/1993 on issuing expert opinions the matters of air protection, appointing persons authorized to give such opinions and verification of their professional abilities
  • Act of the Ministry of Environment No. 2/1993 on specifying areas requiring special air protection and on operation of smog warning and regulatory systems
  • Government regulation No. 92/1996 regarding emission standards, categorization of pollution sources and list of the polluting substances
  • Act of the Ministry of Environment No. 299/1995 on conditions for appointing persons authorized to carry out emission and ambient air quality measurements
  • Act of the Ministry of Environment No. 208/1996 on reduction programs
  • Act of the Ministry of Environment No. 41/1997 on emission measurement
  • Act of the Ministry of Environment No. 268/1997 on fuel quality requirements

Regulatory Measures

  • Ambient air quality standards
  • Fuel quality standards
  • Emission standards

Economic Instruments

  • Emission charges, taxes and fines
  • Subsidies

  National programs are therefore able to take advantage of numerous reduction options, considered to be the most suitable for the circumstances of a particular country.
Economic Instruments Regulation, or the use of "economic instruments" is an approach that has grown in importance in recent years and is used successfully as the driving force in all SILAQ countries for reducing emissions. Among the most popular instruments, charges, fines and taxes are used to regulate polluters. These revenues generated by these measures are collected in "Eco-funds" and play an important role in the financing of actual control systems and in the implementation of policy measures.

There are, however, drawbacks in the use of direct regulations, including their lack of flexibility, their increasing costs and their complexity. Nevertheless, where market mechanisms are starting to take root in the SILAQ countries, the regulations in the short run will remain the best and most significant option in properly addressing environmental issues and in particular air pollution.
Expected Emission Increases Nevertheless, growth in industrial activity and total energy consumption in the SILAQ countries consistent with economic recovery, is expected to lead to a rise in SO2 and particulate emissions, particularly in those countries where measures like those above have yet to be taken. The question then is not just whether the levels of emissions will increase proportional to the total energy demand and production growth rates, but whether they will rise proportional to the growth in demand for individual fuels, the efficiency of the technologies applied, and according to the extent and enforcement of new environmental policies, legislation and regulations.
Emission Controls In terms of actual emission controls, Hungary, the Czech Republic, Poland, Slovenia and Slovakia have already introduced a number of cleaning systems, with the main installations at industrial plants in Slovenia completed, and those in the Czech Republic, Hungary and Slovakia due for completion this year. Installations in Poland will be completed next year. Bulgaria and Romania are still at an earlier stage of development. As mentioned earlier, the efficiency of new cleaning systems could be a topic of further study in the coming years, and could help each country understand the costs and benefits from the actions taken. The progress achieved in the adjustment of the monitoring and control systems to the requirements of US EPA would be a good pre-condition for such an assessment.
Shift Needed While some of options such as the installation of desulfurization devices, electrical filters or the enforcement of taxes and charges can help in the short-term, "end-of-pipe" measures are no substitute for the preventive approach which perhaps has to be the more serious long-term policy measure. A clear shift from technical based measures towards government and policy related options is being noted in the SILAQ countries, as the benefits of other measures like the decommissioning of old coal-fired power plants, switching to natural gas, the use of renewable energy, and implementation of new state-of-the-art technologies are realized (see Box 12).

BOX 12: Anticipated Results of the Decin Project in the Czech Republic

This project was initiated primarily to address the urgent ecological and health problems in the city of Decin related to sulfur dioxide (SO2) emissions and violation of the WHO health limits. The project envisages a fuel switch from coal to natural gas, the installation of a co-generation facility, and the improvement of efficiency in the heat distribution network. The implementation of the project will result in the reduction of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions by 6,000 tons/annually, sulfur dioxide (SO2) by 95 tons/annually, and particulate matter by 3,190 tons/annually.

Source: Billharz, 1996

Economic incentives, changes in fuel mixes (e.g., increasing the share of renewable energies), energy conservation, demand-side management, enhanced penetration of new technologies, and promotion of energy efficiency can be considered some of the other preventive measures available. Public information, however, should also be provided and improved public awareness (see Box 13) should give rise to greater knowledge, understanding and public participation.

BOX 13: Public Awareness

The results of a survey conducted in the summer of 1995 indicates that 82 percent of Europeans consider protecting the environment an "immediate and urgent problem," while 72 percent consider it necessary to protect the environment while ensuring economic development. This feeling of urgency and environmental awareness has yet to become a common belief among the SILAQ countries. The experiences of the EU, US and other countries should be used in raising public awareness to environmental issues and encouraging public participation with regard to air quality issues. Improved awareness can help to increase acceptance of "green taxes" and encourage the backing of initiatives like the "Public Participation" Convention. Interestingly, most Europeans see the introduction of "green taxes" as an effective instrument contributing to environmental protection and are willing to support their introduction.

REC * PUBLICATIONS * REDUCTION OF SO2 AND PARTICULATE EMISSIONS * EMISSION REDUCTION MEASURES

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