REC: Reduction of SO2 and Particulate Emissions: Rationale (2.2)

2. Rationale for the Reduction of SO₂ and Particulate Air Pollution (continued)

2.2 Ambient air quality

	Data collected from the questionnaire surveys concerning the annual average SO₂ and particulate matter concentrations for selected cities in each SILAQ country are summarized in Tables 1 and 2, respectively. The air quality standards adopted by these countries are also shown and those concentrations exceeding the national standard are indicated in black italic.
SO₂ Concentrations	The data in Table 1 indicates that the actual annual averages of SO₂ concentrations in Slovakia and Romania are below the standard values (of 0.06 mg/Nm³). In Romania, SO₂ tends to be one of the most effectively monitored pollutants with more than 150 monitoring stations located across the country. Some towns collect time-series data that cover a 30 year period. A decrease in concentrations is shown and the threshold levels set with WHO guidelines are rarely exceeded.

Data collected from the questionnaire surveys concerning the annual average SO₂ and particulate matter concentrations for selected cities in each SILAQ country are summarized in Tables 1 and 2, respectively. The air quality standards adopted by these countries are also shown and those concentrations exceeding the national standard are indicated in black italic.

SO₂ Concentrations

The data in Table 1 indicates that the actual annual averages of SO₂ concentrations in Slovakia and Romania are below the standard values (of 0.06 mg/Nm³). In Romania, SO₂ tends to be one of the most effectively monitored pollutants with more than 150 monitoring stations located across the country. Some towns collect time-series data that cover a 30 year period. A decrease in concentrations is shown and the threshold levels set with WHO guidelines are rarely exceeded.

TABLE 1: Annual Average SO₂ Concentrations in Ambient Air [µg/Nm³]

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996

Bulgaria Air quality standard - 50µg/Nm³ (0.05 mg/Nm³)

Eliseina 185 197 102 174 315 167 351

Zlatitza 232 569 178 197 16 106 78

Pernik 230 260 156 46 72 100 48

Kardjali 95 77 90 115 96 57 62

Asenovgrad 251 158 189 112 135 117 134

Czech Republic Air quality standard - 60µg/Nm³ (0.06 mg/Nm³)

Prague 47 69 44 50 41 31 34

Ostrava 34 34 25 28 22 19 28

Teplice 51 59 41 44 34 31 31

Poland Air quality standard - 32µg/Nm³ (0.032 mg/Nm³)

Warsaw 20 20 15 20 13 140 16

Bialystok 17 13 8 6 5 5 6

Katowice 84 89 75 84 53 39 39

Krakow 68 65 60 59 39 39 41

Lodz 27 33 24 26 20 20 18

Romania Air quality standard - 60µg/Nm³ (0.06 mg/Nm³)

Bucharest 4 8 9 4 7 29 35

Baia Mare 65 38 12 16 12 18

Ploiesti 24 15 12 10 15 16 24

Craiova 6 7 7 7 7 9 6

Slovakia Air quality standard - 60µg/Nm³ (0.06 mg/Nm³)

Bratislava - - 25 33 20 31 28

Kosice - - 22 19 20 29 25

Banska Bystrica - - 33 47 27 24 25

Zilina - - 48 34 28 32

Prievidza - - 50 53 39 37 49

Slovenia Air quality standard - 50µg/Nm³ (0.05 mg/Nm³)

Ljubljana - 59 51 39 27 23 25

Maribor - 38 47 42 30 28 24

Celje - 88 57 54 49 32 24

Trbovje - 111 69 71 49 48 37

Sostanj - 57 49 48 38 29 34

Note:bold italic figures indicate air quality standards have been exceeded

TABLE 1: Annual Average SO₂ Concentrations in Ambient Air [µg/Nm³]
	1990	1991	1992	1993	1994	1995	1996

Bulgaria Air quality standard - 50µg/Nm³ (0.05 mg/Nm³)
Eliseina	*185*	*197*	*102*	*174*	*315*	*167*	*351*
Zlatitza	*232*	*569*	*178*	*197*	16	*106*	78
Pernik	*230*	*260*	*156*	46	72	*100*	48
Kardjali	95	77	90	*115*	96	57	62
Asenovgrad	*251*	*158*	*189*	*112*	*135*	*117*	*134*

Czech Republic Air quality standard - 60µg/Nm³ (0.06 mg/Nm³)
Prague	47	69	44	50	41	31	34
Ostrava	34	34	25	28	22	19	28
Teplice	51	59	41	44	34	31	31

Poland Air quality standard - 32µg/Nm³ (0.032 mg/Nm³)
Warsaw	20	20	15	20	13	140	16
Bialystok	17	13	8	6	5	5	6
Katowice	84	89	75	84	53	39	39
Krakow	68	65	60	59	39	39	41
Lodz	27	33	24	26	20	20	18

Romania Air quality standard - 60µg/Nm³ (0.06 mg/Nm³)
Bucharest	4	8	9	4	7	29	35
Baia Mare	65	38	12	16	12	18
Ploiesti	24	15	12	10	15	16	24
Craiova	6	7	7	7	7	9	6

Slovakia Air quality standard - 60µg/Nm³ (0.06 mg/Nm³)
Bratislava	-	-	25	33	20	31	28
Kosice	-	-	22	19	20	29	25
Banska Bystrica	-	-	33	47	27	24	25
Zilina	-	-		48	34	28	32
Prievidza	-	-	50	53	39	37	49

Slovenia Air quality standard - 50µg/Nm³ (0.05 mg/Nm³)
Ljubljana	-	59	51	39	27	23	25
Maribor	-	38	47	42	30	28	24
Celje	-	88	57	54	49	32	24
Trbovje	-	*111*	69	71	49	48	37
Sostanj	-	57	49	48	38	29	34

Note:bold italic figures indicate air quality standards have been exceeded

TABLE 2: Annual Average Particulate Concentrations in Ambient Air [µg/Nm³]

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996

Bulgaria Air quality standard - 150µg/Nm³ (0.15 mg/Nm³)

Sofia 284 235 222 169 187 142 154

Plovdiv 206 239 222 200 194 229 229

Pleven 523 253 362 425 390 326 263

Pernik 256 136 214 304 299 347 318

Stara Zagora 231 219 210 208 202 207 247

Czech Republic Air quality standard - 60µg/Nm³ (0.06 mg/Nm³)

Prague 56 63 59 66 58 52 53

Ostrava 72 75 56 59 56 56 58

Teplice 55 56 44 46 44 38 39

Poland Air quality standard - 50µg/Nm³ (0.05 mg/Nm³)

Warsaw 50 51 41 38 42 42 42

Bialystok 23 20 19 22 18 16 18

Katowice* 143 144 135 125 99 106 120

Krakow 56 47 46 47 39 42 46

Lodz 33 46 40 39 33 27 26

Romania Air quality standard - 75µg/Nm³ (0.075 mg/Nm³)

Bucharest 84 74 72 83 115 86 64

Baia Mare 55 50 217 45 51 53 0

Ploiesti 76 81 128 118 123 120 116

Craiova 101 102 66 78 84 97 95

Slovakia Air quality standard - 60µg/Nm³ (0.06 mg/Nm³)

Bratislava - - 43 40 46 37 47

Kosice - - 48 55 47 42 -

Banska Bystrica - - 82 81 85 76 83

Zilina - - - 73 63 64 72

Prievidza - - - 73 69 76 73

Slovenia Air quality standard - 70µg/Nm³ (0.07 mg/Nm³)

Ljubljana - - - - - 54 57

Maribor - - - - - 53 55

Celje - - - - - 62 70

Vnajnarje - - - - - 27 29

Prapretno - - - - - 27 40

Note:bold italic figures indicate air quality standards have been exceeded
* Measurements in Katowice are for total suspended particulate.

TABLE 2: Annual Average Particulate Concentrations in Ambient Air [µg/Nm³]
	1990	1991	1992	1993	1994	1995	1996

Bulgaria Air quality standard - 150µg/Nm³ (0.15 mg/Nm³)
Sofia	*284*	*235*	*222*	*169*	*187*	142	*154*
Plovdiv	*206*	*239*	*222*	*200*	*194*	*229*	*229*
Pleven	*523*	*253*	*362*	*425*	*390*	*326*	*263*
Pernik	*256*	136	*214*	*304*	*299*	*347*	*318*
Stara Zagora	*231*	*219*	*210*	*208*	*202*	*207*	*247*

Czech Republic Air quality standard - 60µg/Nm³ (0.06 mg/Nm³)
Prague	56	63	59	66	58	52	53
Ostrava	72	75	56	59	56	56	58
Teplice	55	56	44	46	44	38	39

Poland Air quality standard - 50µg/Nm³ (0.05 mg/Nm³)
Warsaw	50	51	41	38	42	42	42
Bialystok	23	20	19	22	18	16	18
Katowice*	*143*	*144*	*135*	*125*	99	*106*	*120*
Krakow	56	47	46	47	39	42	46
Lodz	33	46	40	39	33	27	26

Romania Air quality standard - 75µg/Nm³ (0.075 mg/Nm³)
Bucharest	84	74	72	83	*115*	86	64
Baia Mare	55	50	*217*	45	51	53	0
Ploiesti	76	81	*128*	*118*	*123*	*120*	*116*
Craiova	*101*	*102*	66	78	84	97	95

Slovakia Air quality standard - 60µg/Nm³ (0.06 mg/Nm³)
Bratislava	-	-	43	40	46	37	47
Kosice	-	-	48	55	47	42	-
Banska Bystrica	-	-	82	81	85	76	83
Zilina	-	-	-	73	63	64	72
Prievidza	-	-	-	73	69	76	73

Slovenia Air quality standard - 70µg/Nm³ (0.07 mg/Nm³)
Ljubljana	-	-	-	-	-	54	57
Maribor	-	-	-	-	-	53	55
Celje	-	-	-	-	-	62	70
Vnajnarje	-	-	-	-	-	27	29
Prapretno	-	-	-	-	-	27	40

Note:bold italic figures indicate air quality standards have been exceeded * Measurements in Katowice are for total suspended particulate.

SO₂ Standards Among the SILAQ countries, Poland has the most stringent ambient air quality standard for SO₂ (0.032 mg/Nm³). Bulgaria and Slovenia enforce standards of 0.05 mg/Nm³, however many cases of noncompliance have been found in Bulgaria. In some places the standard was not only exceeded but concentrations were found to be consistently above the national standard, for example in Eliseina, Zlatitza and Kardjali. In Slovenia, limits were exceeded at the beginning of the surveyed period but during the last three years compliance has improved with no single standard now exceeded. In general, there is a downward trend in concentrations of SO₂ in SILAQ countries, but this is by no means consistent.
Table 2 indicates that some cities in Romania and Slovakia tend to meet standards for particulate matter concentration while others do not comply with them on a regular basis. Slovenia is the only country where all values of particulate matter concentration are within the accepted norms.

SO₂ vs. Particulate Pollution The conclusion drawn in comparison with the data on SO₂ is that non-compliance with particulate matter limits is a more serious problem in the SILAQ countries. Concentrations of particulate matter are several times greater than the standard values, particularly in Bulgaria where standards are lax compared with other SILAQ countries. In most settlements, the average annual concentrations exceed the permitted norms for particulate matter. Concentrations above the upper threshold value are registered mainly in residential areas, where the impact of industry is combined with that of fuel combustion from households. The highest concentrations in the surveyed period are found in Pleven, where nearly 92 percent of concentrations are above the 24 hour norm. Even in settlements where no particulate emission sources exist, high particulate concentrations have been recorded in comparison with other settlements where large point sources are located. The reason for this is poor city planning. The situation is further worsened by the continuing existence of particulate matter in the lower layers of air due to the "closed" relief of some regions (such as the Sofia and Pirdop valleys in Bulgaria).

Mobile Sources When discussing particulate matter, along with generation facilities and residential combustion, mobile sources should also be discussed. The parameters of diesel fuels have a direct bearing on the particulate emissions of diesel engines, however this seems to be less significant than other issues such as engine adjustment, load and maintenance. The actual trend in legislation relating to the quality of diesel fuel, such as a lower sulfur and aromatic content will reduce the emissions of all harmful substances. Diesel exhaust is a complex mixture of a great variety of compounds and from a toxicological point of view, particulate matter appears to be the most relevant component concerning population exposure. The concentration of particulate matter is about 10-20 times higher than in exhaust from gasoline-fuelled vehicles, and the diameter of particulates fall within that range which causes harm to the respiratory tract.
The systematic measurement of air pollutants in Romania takes place in more than 50 towns. Data shows that the concentrations of particulate matter tend to exceed the standard values in highly industrialized towns such as Hunedoara, Alba Iulia, Baia Mare, and Gheorgheni, with a levels more than 25 percent higher. For a greater number of towns, however, the level is some 12.5 percent lower.
Although the examples given show the correlation between air pollution and health effects and help to improve understanding, further studies on these problems are still necessary. Those studies presented perhaps should be considered a start in the systematic monitoring of detrimental effects, particularly for "hot spot" areas where public sensitivity is high and health and environmental losses considerable.

Other Standards When discussing the health impacts, it should be mentioned that the air quality standards adopted in the SILAQ countries are among the most stringent in the world. The annual air quality standard for example in the EU and the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) in the USA for SO₂ emissions is 0.08 mg/Nm³. This fact has to be kept in mind when defining compliance with local standards in the SILAQ countries and should be considered in terms of the potential consequences (economic, administrative, etc.) of these narrower limits.

Pollution Reduction Benefits Different measures must therefore be introduced to reduce the effects on health resulting from exceeding standards. In addition to these adverse effects, SO₂ and particulate pollution contributes to acid rain, damage and defoliation of forests, soil and water acidification, acceleration of corrosion, and erosion. Therefore, SO₂ and particulate emissions reduction will have multi-dimensional benefits. In addition to the improved health status of the population, a decrease in pollution levels will reduce work absence (arising from health problems), and the costs of health insurance and protection. Reduction of emissions will also have a positive impact on agricultural production, leisure activities, and forestry.
Research into the effects of SO₂ and particulate matter should perhaps continue in order to gain further knowledge of the issue, with the results being communicated to the public and to decisionmakers. Workshops with public health officials, the development of new standards, public awareness campaigns and education might be envisaged as end-results. The protection of human health should be a preventive process and the ultimate objective.
In this respect, trends in SO₂ and particulate emissions, the main emission sources and the respective mitigation measures should be well identified and analyzed, a notion made all the more important by the fact that recent data reported by the US Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) at the SILAQ workshop held in Bratislava in January 1998, show that losses arising from fine particulate emissions in terms of health and the environment could be much higher than previously expected. The following chapters aim to report on some of these trends and measures.


SO₂ Standards	Among the SILAQ countries, Poland has the most stringent ambient air quality standard for SO₂ (0.032 mg/Nm³). Bulgaria and Slovenia enforce standards of 0.05 mg/Nm³, however many cases of noncompliance have been found in Bulgaria. In some places the standard was not only exceeded but concentrations were found to be consistently above the national standard, for example in Eliseina, Zlatitza and Kardjali. In Slovenia, limits were exceeded at the beginning of the surveyed period but during the last three years compliance has improved with no single standard now exceeded. In general, there is a downward trend in concentrations of SO₂ in SILAQ countries, but this is by no means consistent. Table 2 indicates that some cities in Romania and Slovakia tend to meet standards for particulate matter concentration while others do not comply with them on a regular basis. Slovenia is the only country where all values of particulate matter concentration are within the accepted norms.
SO₂ vs. Particulate Pollution	The conclusion drawn in comparison with the data on SO₂ is that non-compliance with particulate matter limits is a more serious problem in the SILAQ countries. Concentrations of particulate matter are several times greater than the standard values, particularly in Bulgaria where standards are lax compared with other SILAQ countries. In most settlements, the average annual concentrations exceed the permitted norms for particulate matter. Concentrations above the upper threshold value are registered mainly in residential areas, where the impact of industry is combined with that of fuel combustion from households. The highest concentrations in the surveyed period are found in Pleven, where nearly 92 percent of concentrations are above the 24 hour norm. Even in settlements where no particulate emission sources exist, high particulate concentrations have been recorded in comparison with other settlements where large point sources are located. The reason for this is poor city planning. The situation is further worsened by the continuing existence of particulate matter in the lower layers of air due to the "closed" relief of some regions (such as the Sofia and Pirdop valleys in Bulgaria).
Mobile Sources	When discussing particulate matter, along with generation facilities and residential combustion, mobile sources should also be discussed. The parameters of diesel fuels have a direct bearing on the particulate emissions of diesel engines, however this seems to be less significant than other issues such as engine adjustment, load and maintenance. The actual trend in legislation relating to the quality of diesel fuel, such as a lower sulfur and aromatic content will reduce the emissions of all harmful substances. Diesel exhaust is a complex mixture of a great variety of compounds and from a toxicological point of view, particulate matter appears to be the most relevant component concerning population exposure. The concentration of particulate matter is about 10-20 times higher than in exhaust from gasoline-fuelled vehicles, and the diameter of particulates fall within that range which causes harm to the respiratory tract. The systematic measurement of air pollutants in Romania takes place in more than 50 towns. Data shows that the concentrations of particulate matter tend to exceed the standard values in highly industrialized towns such as Hunedoara, Alba Iulia, Baia Mare, and Gheorgheni, with a levels more than 25 percent higher. For a greater number of towns, however, the level is some 12.5 percent lower. Although the examples given show the correlation between air pollution and health effects and help to improve understanding, further studies on these problems are still necessary. Those studies presented perhaps should be considered a start in the systematic monitoring of detrimental effects, particularly for "hot spot" areas where public sensitivity is high and health and environmental losses considerable.
Other Standards	When discussing the health impacts, it should be mentioned that the air quality standards adopted in the SILAQ countries are among the most stringent in the world. The annual air quality standard for example in the EU and the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) in the USA for SO₂ emissions is 0.08 mg/Nm³. This fact has to be kept in mind when defining compliance with local standards in the SILAQ countries and should be considered in terms of the potential consequences (economic, administrative, etc.) of these narrower limits.
Pollution Reduction Benefits	Different measures must therefore be introduced to reduce the effects on health resulting from exceeding standards. In addition to these adverse effects, SO₂ and particulate pollution contributes to acid rain, damage and defoliation of forests, soil and water acidification, acceleration of corrosion, and erosion. Therefore, SO₂ and particulate emissions reduction will have multi-dimensional benefits. In addition to the improved health status of the population, a decrease in pollution levels will reduce work absence (arising from health problems), and the costs of health insurance and protection. Reduction of emissions will also have a positive impact on agricultural production, leisure activities, and forestry. Research into the effects of SO₂ and particulate matter should perhaps continue in order to gain further knowledge of the issue, with the results being communicated to the public and to decisionmakers. Workshops with public health officials, the development of new standards, public awareness campaigns and education might be envisaged as end-results. The protection of human health should be a preventive process and the ultimate objective. In this respect, trends in SO₂ and particulate emissions, the main emission sources and the respective mitigation measures should be well identified and analyzed, a notion made all the more important by the fact that recent data reported by the US Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) at the SILAQ workshop held in Bratislava in January 1998, show that losses arising from fine particulate emissions in terms of health and the environment could be much higher than previously expected. The following chapters aim to report on some of these trends and measures.

REC * PUBLICATIONS * REDUCTION OF SO₂ AND PARTICULATE EMISSIONS * RATIONALE

2. Rationale for the Reduction of SO2 and Particulate Air Pollution (continued)

2.2 Ambient air quality

2. Rationale for the Reduction of SO₂ and Particulate Air Pollution (continued)