Slovakia in the twentieth century has been characterized by frequent and extensive socio-economic and political changes that have had an unfavorable impact on all aspects of the environment. Long-term exploitation of natural resources, extensive pollution of air, water and land, the release of contaminants into the environment and the food chain, ill-advised intrusions into the countryside, the accumulation of waste, and outdated technology and infrastructure have all had a pronounced and negative effect on the state of the environment in Slovakia. Various degrees of devastation and risk in different regions have had undesirable effects on life expectancy and public health, and on the genetic reserve of important wild plant and animal species, the integrity of ecosystems, the durability of equipment and materials, and on the economy.
Fifty-five percent of the Slovak population lives in areas characterized by environmental degradation, including 41 percent that live in highly to extremely disturbed areas. The state of the environment plays a significant role in morbidity and mortality. The average life expectancy for Slovak men is six to seven years less than in developed countries, and five to six years less for women. More than one-half of all illnesses (53 percent) are caused by heart and vascular diseases and one-fifth (19 percent) by malignant tumors, and the morbidity and mortality from malignant tumors has nearly doubled since 1965.
Profound, negative environmental change has had a detrimental effect on biodiversity: wildlife populations have declined, including the extinction of some species. Of 2500 species of naturally occurring vascular plants, 1,326 (53 percent) were included on the Red List in 1993, including 31 that are deemed to be extinct and 1,006 that are endangered, 496 of these critically. The lowlands and plains have been almost completely deforested, and nearly all remnants of the natural ecosystems that once provided a territorial system of ecological stability have been cleared. Deforestation and the unsuitable regulation of water have increased waeÊr run-off from the territory of Slovakia, Slovakia's large rivers are almost totally polluted, and almost one-half of all ground water resources are endangered. The consumption of drinking water in 1994 (340 liters per capita per day) was almost double that of Austria. Megalomaniac intentions to construct waterways and dams endanger the last natural parts of Slovakia's rivers.
The economy, characterized by a high demand for energy and raw materials, remains the cardinal problem. Although the Slovak Republic produced 3.5 million tons of pig iron and 4.7 million tons of steel in 1989, there is a shortage of domestic sources of certain high-quality raw materials that have been intensively exploited without regard for local environmental conditions. The result of this production-oriented economy is that industry consumes 63 percent of the electricity, and the overall per capita consumption of primary energy is three to seven times greater than in developed countries.
Industrial production is a major contributor to air pollution problems. Slovakia remains ninth among European states in sulfur dioxide emissions, producing four times the sulfur dioxide of neighboring Austria. CO emissions, which in 1985 reached 65.7 kg per capita, declined to 59.4 kg per capita in 1991, but emissions of nitrous oxides increased from 38.2 kg per capita in 1985 to 44.2 kg per capita in 1991. These data include domestic stationary sources only, excluding transportation, transboundary emissions and household heating.
Waste also poses great problems for the environment. Of the 34 million tons of total waste produced annually, 3.3 million tons is classified as hazardous. There are 7,204 known landfills, only 335 of which are licensed. The decline of Slovak forests is perhaps the most rapid in Europe: 2.4 percent of Slovakia's forests were determined to be damaged by emissions in 1970, 8.5 percent in 1975, 15.6 percent in 1985, and more than 50 percent in 1990. In 1994, 85 percent of the trees in Slovakia were diseased.
Due to geological and geomorphologic preconditions, but also due to the irrational management of huge uniformed fields on the slopes, approximately 1.5 million hectares of Slovakia's agricultural soils (from a total of 2.5 million hectares) are endangered by water erosion. During the last few decades, industrial agriculture has become the most important polluter of ground water in Slovakia.
Practical experience with new environmental legislation, and the implementation and enforcement of environmental policy at all levels of the state administration (management), is lacking in Slovakia. Also absent are clear codes of conduct for foreign companies, economic tools for the support of environmentally friendly technologies and products, and support programs for small companies willing to invest in the environmental marketplace. Slovakia also lacks consulting and advisory centers for the public and businesses. Moreover, political and personal instability present other significant barriers to effective environmental protection: political qualifications are more important than professional ones, local and regional administrations are under pressure from permanent personal changes, and there has been a continuing reduction of finances earmarked for environmental protection activities since Slovakia announced its independence three years ago.
Over 80 percent of the NGOs have people at their offices who can communicate in a foreign language. English tops the list with over 66 percent of the groups having staff or members that read or speak English. Other languages spoken include German (41 percent), Russian (41 percent) and Hungarian (25 percent). The regions with the highest percentage of English speakers include Bratislava and Kosice (both over 80 percent); the lowest percentage is in the southwest (50 percent), where the ability to speak Hungarian is 70 percent. NGOs in Slovakia operate on local, regional and national levels. Most (41 percent) work on the regional level, followed by the local level (32 percent), national level (28 percent), and the international level (4 percent).
According to the questionnaires, the Regional Environmental Center provides the most funding, with over 40 percent of NGOs receiving grants from either the local office or REC Head Office in Szentendre, Hungary. The next largest funders are the Environmental Partnership for Central and Eastern Europe, which has provided grants to 27 NGOs (26 percent), and the Civil Society Development Foundation (NPOA), which has given grants to 21 NGOs (20 percent). Other foreign aid comes from the Open Society Fund (16 percent), WWF (7 percent), Global Environmental Facility (7 percent), Foundation for Civil Society (3 percent), and other foreign sponsors (22 percent).
Interestingly enough, the ability to communicate in English may help NGOs access financial assistance from foreign support organizations. The statistics show that only 21 percent of non-English-speaking NGOs received funding from the REC, but that 49 percent of English-speaking NGOs received funding. The statistics are similar for EPCE: only 18 percent of non-English-speaking groups received funding, while 31 percent of English-speaking NGOs managed to procure funding.
In terms of Slovak government resources, a significant number of NGOs (20 percent) were able to get support from local governments (city, district and regional). The next largest Slovak source (16 percent) came from various government ministries (mostly the ministries of environment and education). Only 13 percent of NGOs were able to secure funding from the State Fund for the Environment. Other Slovak funding sources include local businesses and sponsors.
One method of fund raising that is underutilized in Slovakia is generating income from programs such as summer camps and T-shirt sales. Only 28 percent of the NGOs support their activities using this method. A few NGOs rely on membership fees or membership contributions.
A related problem centers around the ability to get individuals to contribute to NGOs. One of the problems with raising funds from the general public involves the current tax laws in Slovakia. In the United States, for instance, most contributions to non-profit NGOs are tax-deductible, thereby providing an incentive to support NGOs. Slovakian legislation does not provide such a strong tax break, and the amount of money raised from public donations shows it. Additionally, most individuals in Slovakia are more concerned with the current economic situation and employment. Many citizens do not realize the importance of contributing to environmental NGOs, and many still believe that the state supports (or at least should support) such activity. Before 1989, NGOs were completely supported by the state, and this tradition still continues in a limited form, with funds coming from the ministries of environment and education, and also from local offices. However, some NGOs refuse to take money from the state when their activities include protesting nuclear power (currently supported by the state) or other activities that may be considered radical by the government.
There is also a lack of young people willing to invest time and effort in the environmental movement. Moreover, many of the people that work or volunteer for NGOs are paid very low salaries. In some cases, NGOs train young people only to have them leave to pursue other jobs, in large part just to provide their families with basic needs. Many NGOs work in the area of public awareness and education, but they find it difficult to change the public's attitudes. For example, after forty years of state control, it is often difficult to convince people that the environment needs to be conserved and protected, or that the public should participate either financially or by volunteering.
Another large problem that NGOs face is lack of communication with each other. Much environmental information could be shared with improved communication, and one way to disseminate this information is through e-mail. However, only 22 percent of Slovak NGOs currently have access to e-mail, and most of these are located in Bratislava or Kosice. Access to e-mail and the Internet by more NGOs would broaden their ability to communicate with each other and to share information.
Another way to solve communication problems among NGOs is by organizing some sort of loose umbrella organization in a particular region. This is beginning to happen in Kosice, where NGOs have organized a group called KAMO (Kosice Association of Nongovernmental Organizations). One of the goals of KAMO is to share information and learn from each another. This pilot project could be reproduced in other large towns, such as Bratislava, Trencin, Banská Bystrica and Oilina. Disappointingly, some NGOs are unwilling to work with other NGOs or local government offices in their respective regions. Reasons include distrust, jealousy, political differences and different goals and opinions.
