REC: Phase-out of Leaded Gasoline: Rationale (2.1)

2. Rationale for the Phase-out of Lead in Gasoline

Lead is a hazardous, heavy metal that has a damaging impact on human health. Evidence from many countries suggests that human exposure to lead is one of the most serious health problems facing populations, especially children.

Health Impacts

Lead and lead compounds can adversely affect human health through either direct inhalation or ingestion of lead-contaminated soil, dust, or paint. Elevated lead levels can adversely affect mental development and performance, kidney function, and blood chemistry. This is particularly a risk for young children, due to the increased sensitivity of young tissues and organs to lead as well as to their greater chance of ingesting lead with soil and dust. Lead-related pollution also causes cardiovascular problems in adults even with low levels of exposure, as well as adverse reproductive effects for women.

Pollution Sources

The exposure is primarily caused by airborne lead, and lead in dust and soil. In congested urban areas, in countries where only limited or no initiatives to reduce lead emissions have been taken, exhaust fumes from vehicles using leaded gasoline typically account for some 90 percent of airborne lead pollution.

Other sources of lead emissions include industrial processes such as metal smelting; production and destruction of lead batteries; and combustion processes in coal-fired power plants, waste incinerators, and domestic heating sources.

Both the negative impact of lead pollution on human health, as well as the health and environmental benefits of the phase-out of leaded gasoline are well documented through research carried out in those countries which have already completed the phase-out process.

2.1 Total lead emissions and the share of lead emissions from the use of gasoline

Vehicle-related Lead

Data on the environmental stress caused by lead, as measured by the level of emissions from vehicles for the years 1990-1996, are given in Box 1. The declining trend in vehicle-related lead emissions is common in all the SILAQ countries but the levels of reduction vary.

BOX 1: Vehicle Emissions

* Data from COWI

Table 1 summarizes the total and vehicle-based lead emission levels, per capita lead emission levels, and the use of unleaded gasoline. This table illustrates that vehicles account for a major percentage of lead emissions, although the magnitude of total emissions and the share from vehicles varies substantially from one country to another.

TABLE 1: Lead Emissions and Vehicle Share
Country	Total lead emissions (tons/year)		Vehicle-based lead emissions (tons/year)		Share of vehicle-based emissions against total (%)		Grams of lead per capita⁽¹⁾	Market share of unleaded gasoline (%)
	1990	1995	1990	1995	1990	1995	1995	1995
Bulgaria	435.9	279.5	199.2	153.3	46	55	18.3	7
Czech Republic	343²	287	229²	227	67	80	22.0⁵	55⁵
Hungary	638.9	151.4	387	100	61	66	15.1	49
Poland	1,410	1,040	670	400	48	38	10.4	37
Romania	-	-	-	-	-	-	16.6	13
Slovakia	166.1	75³	90.5	21.1³	54³	28³	3.9³	100
							<1⁴
Slovenia	-	-	445	183	-	-	92	54
1. Lead emissions from vehicles, Source: COWI 2. Data for 1993 3. Data for 1994 4. Data for 1995 5. Data for 1996


Lead Emissions	Total lead emissions and vehicle-based emissions are declining in all of the surveyed countries. Between 1990 and 1995, the total lead emissions in Slovakia were reduced by 55 percent, and by 77 percent for vehicle-based emissions. It is worth noting that since 1995, only unleaded gasoline has been sold in the Slovak market. In Bulgaria, total and vehicle-based emissions in the same period were reduced by 36 percent and 23 percent, respectively, although the market share of unleaded gasoline is still only 7 percent. In the Czech Republic, total lead emissions decreased by 18 percent between 1993 and 1995, but for the same period, vehicle-based emissions have remained almost unchanged (although a decrease of 18 percent was registered in 1994). In Slovenia, the reduction of vehicle-based emissions during the period 1990-1995 has been significant (58 percent), but at 92g of lead per capita, the level of emissions still remains the highest among the surveyed countries. As can be seen in Table 1, the trends in the use of unleaded gasoline in the SILAQ countries show the differences in the effectiveness of policy measures. Slovakia is clearly a leader in the fast phase-out of leaded gasoline, with the complete phase-out achieved by 1995. It is worth noting that Slovakia has the lowest total lead and vehicle-based emissions along with the lowest per capita levels. Considering the data presented in Table 1, it is clear that the increased use of unleaded gasoline in Slovakia has led to a significant decrease in the share of vehicle-based lead emissions and very low levels of lead pollution per capita.
Country Studies	However, Hungary and Slovenia are also increasing their share of unleaded gasoline in the market, exceeding 55 percent in both countries in 1996. The lowest consumption of unleaded gasoline is in Romania. In Bulgaria, in contrast, the share of vehicle-based lead emissions has actually increased, from 46 percent in 1990 to 56 percent in 1995. This is due to the greater reduction of lead emissions from other sources, and because the market share of unleaded gasoline has remained at a very low level, at 7 percent. In the Czech Republic, the share of vehicle-based emissions decreased from 67 percent in 1993 to 45 percent in 1994, but an upward change toward 80 percent has been reported for 1995. These values are estimated on the basis of total gasoline consumption, which has fluctuated significantly in the same period, with a strong decline in 1994. In both Bulgaria and Romania, the share of unleaded gasoline in the market is low. Even though the levels of per capita emissions from vehicles are fairly low in Bulgaria, it is obvious that any significant reduction of vehicle-based emission in both countries has been mainly due to the lower levels of fuel consumption during the economic transition period. Interestingly, among the surveyed countries, only Romania's market share of unleaded gasoline decreased, from 13 percent in 1995 to 5 percent in 1996. This is due to the lack of efficient policy measures and commercial interests in exporting unleaded gasoline, rather than increasing availability domestically.

Lead Emissions

Total lead emissions and vehicle-based emissions are declining in all of the surveyed countries. Between 1990 and 1995, the total lead emissions in Slovakia were reduced by 55 percent, and by 77 percent for vehicle-based emissions. It is worth noting that since 1995, only unleaded gasoline has been sold in the Slovak market. In Bulgaria, total and vehicle-based emissions in the same period were reduced by 36 percent and 23 percent, respectively, although the market share of unleaded gasoline is still only 7 percent. In the Czech Republic, total lead emissions decreased by 18 percent between 1993 and 1995, but for the same period, vehicle-based emissions have remained almost unchanged (although a decrease of 18 percent was registered in 1994). In Slovenia, the reduction of vehicle-based emissions during the period 1990-1995 has been significant (58 percent), but at 92g of lead per capita, the level of emissions still remains the highest among the surveyed countries.

As can be seen in Table 1, the trends in the use of unleaded gasoline in the SILAQ countries show the differences in the effectiveness of policy measures. Slovakia is clearly a leader in the fast phase-out of leaded gasoline, with the complete phase-out achieved by 1995. It is worth noting that Slovakia has the lowest total lead and vehicle-based emissions along with the lowest per capita levels. Considering the data presented in Table 1, it is clear that the increased use of unleaded gasoline in Slovakia has led to a significant decrease in the share of vehicle-based lead emissions and very low levels of lead pollution per capita.

Country Studies

However, Hungary and Slovenia are also increasing their share of unleaded gasoline in the market, exceeding 55 percent in both countries in 1996. The lowest consumption of unleaded gasoline is in Romania.

In Bulgaria, in contrast, the share of vehicle-based lead emissions has actually increased, from 46 percent in 1990 to 56 percent in 1995. This is due to the greater reduction of lead emissions from other sources, and because the market share of unleaded gasoline has remained at a very low level, at 7 percent.

In the Czech Republic, the share of vehicle-based emissions decreased from 67 percent in 1993 to 45 percent in 1994, but an upward change toward 80 percent has been reported for 1995. These values are estimated on the basis of total gasoline consumption, which has fluctuated significantly in the same period, with a strong decline in 1994.

In both Bulgaria and Romania, the share of unleaded gasoline in the market is low. Even though the levels of per capita emissions from vehicles are fairly low in Bulgaria, it is obvious that any significant reduction of vehicle-based emission in both countries has been mainly due to the lower levels of fuel consumption during the economic transition period. Interestingly, among the surveyed countries, only Romania's market share of unleaded gasoline decreased, from 13 percent in 1995 to 5 percent in 1996. This is due to the lack of efficient policy measures and commercial interests in exporting unleaded gasoline, rather than increasing availability domestically.

REC * PUBLICATIONS * PHASE-OUT OF LEADED GASOLINE * RATIONALE